Orthodox theologians of the late Middle Ages debated whether artistic representations of holy figures should be considered permissible. Concerned that common worship of such religious art teetered on the brink of idolatry, these thinkers disapproved of images of an old man or a bird being misconstrued as the true essence of God and the Holy Spirit. In response to such criticism, Alexander Carpenter defended his adoration of holy images of Jesus Christ in his 15th Century work, Destructorium Viciorum, maintaining that "I adore Christ before the image of Christ," and reasoning, "because it is the image of Christ, it inspires me to adore Christ."
Disheartening works of art, such as "Triumph of Death" (1562) by Pietr Bruegel the Elder, exemplified a state of social chaos that prevailed in the wake of the devastating Black Death pandemic. Cemetery art, observable in tomb sculptures, was also shocking in its depiction of partially decomposed bodies rather than stately images of deceased persons sealed inside of the tombs. These works were representative of the Danse Macabre genre, which presented allegories on the universality of death.
Visually, these artworks serve as a historical record as much as they serve as artistic statements. Nevertheless, such works also prepared their original viewers for worse events, if should they be destined to occur. "In addition to illustrated manuscripts in Latin and in prose and verse vernaculars, tapestries, sculptural programs, individual statues, and later, printed books all served to convey the phantasmagoric forms of Dragons, locusts, the Woman clothed with the sun, and extraterrestrial battles to an audience whose expectations, approaching the years 1400 or 1500, were of witnessing these things for themselves (See Reference 2)," observe Richard Kenneth Emmerson and Bernard McGinn in their study "The Apocalypse in the Middle Ages."
During the late Middle Ages, patrons of the arts sponsored the production artworks for the purpose of reinforcing their own positions within society. Kings, nobles or even Church officials acted as such patrons. Nevertheless, during the late Middle Ages, "most of the commissions for works of art are given by individuals belonging to the middle class and no longer by kings and prelates as in the early Middle Ages, or by courts and municipalities, as in the Gothic period," notes Arnold Hauser in "The Social History of Art." Thus, the changing dynamics of the patronage system reflected broader social changes that were occurring during the late Middle Ages.
As viewed from the perspective of the present day, a wide array of items produced during the late Middle Ages qualify as artwork. Thus, textile products, cookware and military weaponry of this period may be considered not only as artifacts from the past but also genuine examples of art. Not only are painters, sculptors or creators of illuminated manuscripts considered artists, but so are jewelers, shoemakers and masons. People responsible for creating such products were typically members of guilds, which were collectives of skilled artisans.