Verbal irony is a common form of irony. It occurs when a writer or character intentionally says something but means its opposite. This can include sarcasm, but most commonly refers to an author's sustained use of satire to make a point. In "A Modest Proposal," for example, Jonathan Swift argues that the people of Ireland should end hunger by eating their own children. The text uses irony to poke fun at the state's inability to find effective solutions to its problems.
Dramatic irony occurs in many novels and plays. It occurs when a character or speaker unknowingly says something whose significance he does not understand, but which the audience does. If, for example, a character innocently says to a duplicitous person, "Thank God you've remained loyal to me," the audience is aware of something the speaker is not.
Situational irony is frequently used in comedic novels, plays and movies. It occurs when a character's actions produce the opposite of his intended result. An example of situational irony is if a character runs for cover in a bomb shelter, only to have the shelter be the only place that collapses in an attack. His attempt to find safety leads, ironically, to danger.
Irony can also be built into character. Ironic characters are those who seem naturally unlucky, destined always to come out on the losing end of a situation. These characters are often associated with comedy, such as in the films of Charlie Chaplin or Woody Allen. Ironic characterization can also be tragic, however, such as in the novels of Franz Kafka, where characters struggle to find the meaning for their misfortune in a meaningless world.