* Disease: The most significant killer was typhus, a highly contagious bacterial disease spread through lice and poor sanitation. Other diseases like cholera, dysentery, and tuberculosis also ravaged the passengers.
* Starvation: Many immigrants were already weakened by famine and malnutrition before boarding the ships. The lack of food and fresh water on board further deteriorated their health.
* Overcrowding and unsanitary conditions: The ships were often packed beyond capacity, with little to no ventilation and inadequate sanitation facilities. This created an ideal breeding ground for disease.
* Lack of medical care: The ships often lacked qualified medical personnel, and even if they had doctors, there were insufficient supplies and treatments to cope with the overwhelming number of sick passengers.
* Rough seas and bad weather: The journeys were long and arduous, and storms could further worsen the conditions on board, leading to injuries and deaths.
The conditions on these ships were truly horrific, with death rates reaching as high as 30% during some voyages. The "coffin ships" represent a tragic chapter in Irish history, a testament to the suffering and hardship endured by the famine refugees seeking a better life in a new land.